About Homeowners' Associations:

One of major condominium's HOA role in cost is periodical large scale repairing/maintenance, surround with scaffolding, under regulation in Japan.

A homeowners' association (abbrev. HOA) is a legal entity created by a real estate developer for the purpose of developing, managing and selling a development of homes. It allows the developer to exit financial and legal responsibility of the community, typically by transferring ownership of the association to the homeowners after selling off a predetermined number of lots. It allows the municipality to increase its tax base, but reduce the amount of services it would ordinarily have to provide to non-homeowners association developments. This article covers this type of HOA.

Most homeowners' associations are non-profit corporations, and are subject to state statutes that govern non-profit corporations and homeowners' associations. State oversight of homeowners associations is inconsistent from state to state. Some states have a strong body of homeowner association law such as Florida and California, and some states have virtually no homeowner association law such as Massachusetts.

The fastest growing form of housing in the United States today is common-interest developments (CIDs), a category that includes planned-unit developments of single-family homes, condominiums, and cooperative apartments. Since 1964, homeowners' associations have become increasingly common in the USA. The Community Associations Institute trade association estimated that HOAs governed 23 million American homes and 57 million residents in 2006.

An alternative to CIDs is the multiple-tenant income property, or MTIP, known in the United Kingdom as housing estates. CIDs and MTIPs have fundamentally different forms of governance. In a CID, dues are paid to a nonprofit association, whose members vote on how to spend the money. In an MTIP, ground rents are paid to a landowner, who decides how to spend it. In both cases, certain guidelines are set out by the covenant or the lease contract; but in the latter scenario, the landowner has a stronger incentive to maximum the value of all the governed property in the long term (because he is the residual claimant of it all) and to keep the residents happy, since his income is dependent on their continued patronage. These factors are cited as arguments in favor of MTIPs.

History

The CID's origins can be traced back to a publication by the Urban Land Institute in 1964, also known as TB 50. This technical bulletin was funded by The National Association of Home Builders and by certain federal agencies: the FHA, U.S. Public Health Service, Office of Civil Defense, the Veterans Administration and the Urban Renewal Administration.

The Federal Housing Administration in 1963 authorized federal home mortgage insurance exclusively for condominiums or for homes in subdivisions where there was a qualifying homeowners' association. The rationale was that homes in tracts where there was a homeowners association would be more likely to maintain their value. The effect, however, was to divert investment from multifamily housing and home construction or renovation in the inner cities, speeding a middle-class exodus to the suburbs and into common-interest housing. The federal highways program further facilitated the process. In the 1970s, a growing scarcity of land for suburban development resulted in escalating land costs, prompting developers to increase the density of homes on the land. In order to do this while still retaining a suburban look, they clustered homes around green open areas managed by associations. These associations provided services that formerly had been provided by municipal agencies funded by property taxes; yet, the residents were still required to pay those taxes. Accordingly, local governments began promoting subdivision development as a means of improving their cash flow.

In 1973, Community Associations Institute (CAI) was formed to deal with problems with association management. It is an educational organization and later also became a business trade group which now lobbies state legislatures on behalf of HOAs and their causes. The CAI membership base consists of volunteer members of HOAs (Board members and committee members), as well as common service providers for HOAs; lawyers, property managers, and other association vendors.

Another primary driver in the proliferation of single family homeowners' associations was the U.S. Clean Water Act of 1977, which required all new real estate developments to detain stormwater so that flow to adjoining properties was no greater than the pre-development runoff. This law required nearly all residential developments to construct detention or retention areas to hold excess stormwater until it could be released at the pre-development flow level. Since these detention areas serve multiple residences they are almost always designated as common area, which results in the need for a homeowners' association. Although these areas can be placed on an individual homeowner's lot eliminating the need for an association; nearly all U.S. municipalities now require these areas to be common area to insure an entity rather than an individual has maintenance responsibility. Real estate developers, therefore, have been forced to establish homeowners' associations to maintain these Federally mandated common areas. And if a homeowners' association already is required, the developers have utilitzed them to provide other amenities desired by homebuyers.

Authority

A homeowners association is incorporated by the developer prior to the initial sale of homes, and the Covenants, Conditions, and Restrictions (CC&Rs) are recorded when the property is subdivided. When a homeowner purchases a home governed by an HOA, he signs his agreement to the CC&Rs. If he sells the land/ home, he ceases to be a member of the association and the new owner becomes a member. All members must pay assessments and abide by the restrictions of the association.

Powers

Like a city, associations provide services, regulate activities, levy assessments, and may impose fines. Unlike a municipal government, homeowner association governance is not subject to the Constitutional constraints that public government must abide by. Some of the tasks which HOAs carry out would otherwise be performed by local governments. A homeowners' association can enforce its actions through the threat and levying of fines, and private legal action under civil law.

Association boards appoint corporate officers, and may create subcommittees, such as "architectural control committees," pool committees and neighborhood watch committees. Association boards are composed of non-paid volunteers from the community elected at the annual meeting to represent the association.

Assessments

Homeowner associations can compel homeowners to pay a share of common expenses, usually per-unit or based on square footage. These expenses generally arise from common property, which varies dramatically depending on the type of association. Some associations are, quite literally, towns, complete with private roads, services, utilities, amenities, community buildings, pools, and even schools. Many condominium associations consider the roofs and exteriors of the structures as the responsibility of the association. Other associations have no common property, but may charge for services or other matters. Assessments paid to homeowner associations in the United States amount to billions of dollars a year.

Benefits

An HOA provides people with shared neighborhood values an opportunity to enforce regulations, consistent with overarching statutory constraints, to achieve a community representative of such values. In doing so, an HOA inherently restricts the rights that would otherwise exist for its members based on municipal codes. For instance, a degree of conformity is often required in exterior appearance of single family homes and there are often time limits and/or restrictions to activities generating noise. There are pre-existing rules in the form of CC&Rs and bylaws that a buyer has a right and an obligation to view before entering such a community, that also prescribe methods for modification of these regulations.

These bylaws can be limited in various degrees by state laws, with some overriding federal judicial or statutory limits. In every association, board members and officers are chosen by election from its property owner-members, with the ability in some states for the membership to remove board members even during term.

Homeowners Associations generally have meetings for the entire Board and community. These meetings are generally monthly or sometimes quarterly, and focus on handling the Homeowners Association's business. In some states, the meeting's minutes must by law be made available for viewing 24 hours a day online, requiring the HOA to launch or purchase a website.

Many homeowners' associations include management of a community's recreational amenities, maintained for exclusive use of its members. This can allow an individual homeowner access to a maintained pool, clubhouse, gym, tennis court or walking trail that they may not be able to otherwise afford to maintain on their own.

Each member of a homeowners' association pays assessments that are used to cover the expenses of the community at large. Some examples are landscaping for the common areas, maintenance and upkeep of community amenities, insurance for commonly-owned structures and areas, mailing costs for newsletters and other correspondence, employment of a management company or on-site manager, security personnel and gate maintenance, and any other item delineated in the governing documents or agreed to by the Board of Directors.

Some residents are happy to have a governing body in place to enforce shared values and community standards. A survey of 709 people by Zogby International showed that for every owner-member who rated the overall experience of living in a community association as negative, seven saw it as positive.

But another survey, conducted by a home improvement trade organization vendor, of over 3,000 people found that two-thirds found their HOAs were "annoying" or worse. 25% of those who responded had never lived in an HOA, 19% had been in a "war" with their HOA, and the remaining 56% had never had a conflict or resolved it quickly / considered it no big deal. 54% percent of the respondents said they would rather live with a sloppy neighbor than deal with an HOA. 24% responded positively about an HOA, and 45% responded positively or felt the HOA was a minor nuisance.

Advocates often maintain that people choose to live in HOAs, but some note that "choice" is misleading. HOAs have been mandated by municipalities for decades either directly or indirectly. This is often accomplished by conditioning plat or other approval on the creation of amenities such as roads, open areas, greenbelts, retention basins, etc. and an obligation to maintain them. Perhaps a large percentage of the population has no choice but to live in an HOA: Finding a non-HOA neighborhood of homes built in the last several decades is virtually impossible. The choice for most buyers seeking a newer home is not HOA or non-HOA but which HOA.

The imposition of an HOA accomplishes several benefits for the municipality. First, these amenities may be burdened with property taxes which would not be the case if the amenities were owned by the municipality. Thus the mandated private amenities are cash generators for the municipalities. Second, the municipalities bear no obligation to maintain the amenities given that they are owned by the HOA. On the other hand, HOA communities are exempt from taxes on certain services provided by the municipality, if the HOA is providing them instead.

In The Voluntary City, Donald J. Boudreaux and Randall G. Holcombe argue in favor of homeowners associations, citing the advantages they have over traditional governments. These include the fact that the association's creator, e.g. a developer, has an incentive to set up a government structured in such a way as to maximize value and thus increasing the selling price of the property. If a certain decision would increase the value of certain parcels and decrease the value of others, he will choose the option with the highest net value. Moreover, as experience demonstrates which rules produce the highest values, entrepreneurs will seek to emulate successful rules and abandon unsuccessful ones; thus, the quality of contractual government should increase over time.

Criticisms

Onerous regulations

Homeowners' associations have been criticized for having excessively restrictive rules and regulations on how homeowners are allowed to conduct themselves and use their property. Board members and professional managers must enforce the regulations consistently and inflexibly in order to protect themselves from personal liability under the business judgment rule. Others maintain that homeowners' association leaders have limited financial incentive to avoid indulging in rigid or arbitrary behavior; unless people begin to leave in droves, it will have little effect on the value of a board member's home.

Undemocratic

Some scholars and the AARP charge that in a variety of ways HOAs suppress the rights of their residents. Due to their nature as a non-governmental entity, HOA boards of directors are not bound by constitutional restrictions on governments, although some critics claim that they are a de-facto level of government.

At their own expense, a homeowner-member may sue a board of directors for perceived breach of duty. Association insurance provides not only for a board member's legal expense, but any judgment attained against them. Homeowners must pay out of pocket for any case they bring to court and risk being personally liable for any judgment and/or Association's legal fees as well as their own, the prevailing party being responsible for liability and legal expenses when judgment is rendered.

Corporation and homeowner association laws provide a limited role for HOA homeowners. Unless either statutory law or the corporation's governing documents reserve a particular issue or action for approval by the members, corporation laws provide that the activities and affairs of a corporation shall be conducted and all corporate powers shall be exercised by or under the direction of the board of directors.

Critics argue that homeowner associations establish a new community as a municipal corporation without ensuring that the residents governed will have a voice in the decision-making process. Voting in a homeowner association is based on property ownership, per the by-laws and covenants of each association. Only property owners are eligible to vote in elections, and voting by renters is prohibited, since the association has contractual agreements solely with owners. Additionally, only one vote per unit may be cast, rather than one vote per adult occupant, so that voting representation is equal to the proportion of ownership. In the case of partially built-out subdivisions in resort areas with a homeowners association, the majority of property owners may not live in the community. Homeowners have challenged political speech restrictions in associations that federal or state constitutional guarantees as rights, claiming that certain private associations are subject to the same constitutional restrictions as municipal governments.

However, in general, courts have held that private actors may restrict individuals' exercise of their rights on private property, especially considering that individuals are under no obligation to build or purchase private property in a planned unit development governed by a homeowners' association. Any individual considering such a purchase has not only the right but the obligation to read associated governing documents carefully. A recent decision in New Jersey held that private residential communities had the right to place reasonable limitations on political speech, and that in doing so, they were not acting as municipal governments. With few exceptions, courts have held private 'actors' are not subject to constitutional limitations — that is, enforcers of private contracts are not subject to the same constitutional limitations as police officers or courts. In 2002 the 11th Circuit Court of Appeals, in in Loren v. Sasser, declined to extend Shelley beyond racial discrimination, and disallowed a challenge to an association's prohibition of "for sale" signs. In Loren, the court ruled that outside the racial covenant context, it would not view judicial enforcement of a private contract as state action, but as private action, and accordingly would disallow any First Amendment relief. In the Twin Rivers case, a group of homeowners collectively called "The Committee for a Better Twin Rivers" sued the Association, for a mandatory injunction permitting homeowners to post political signs and strike down the political signage restrictions by the association as unconstitutional. The appeals court held the restrictions on political signs unconstitutional and void, but the appeals court was reversed when the New Jersey Supreme Court overturned the Appellate courts decision in 2007 and reinstated the decision of the Trial Court. The Court determined that even in light of New Jersey’s broad interpretation of its constitutional free speech provisions, the "nature, purposes, and primary use of Twin Rivers property is for private purposes and does not favor a finding that the Association’s rules and regulations violated plaintiffs’ constitutional rights." Moreover, the Court found that "plaintiffs’ expressional activities are not unreasonably restricted" by the Association’s rules and regulations. Finally, the Court held that "the minor restrictions on plaintiffs’ expressional activities are not unreasonable or oppressive, and the Association is not acting as a municipality."

In some HOA's, the developer may have multiple votes for each lot it retains, while the homeowners are limited to only one vote per lot owned. This has been justified on the grounds that it allows residents to avoid decision costs until major questions about the development process already have been answered, and that as the residual claimant, the developer has the incentive to maximize the value of the property.

Board misconduct

The New Jersey Department of Community Affairs reported these observations of Association Board conduct:

“It is obvious from the complaints [to DCA] that that [home]owners did not realize the extent association rules could govern their lives.”

"Curiously, with rare exceptions, when the State has notified boards of minimal association legal obligation to owners, they dispute compliance. In a disturbing number of instances, those owners with board positions use their influence to punish other owners with whom they disagree. The complete absence of even minimally required standards, training or even orientations for those sitting on boards and the lack of independent oversight is readily apparent in the way boards exercise control"

Overwhelmingly ... the frustrations posed by the duplicative complainants or by the complainants’ misunderstandings are dwarfed by the pictures they reveal of the undemocratic life faced by owners in many associations. Letters routinely express a frustration and outrage easily explainable by the inability to secure the attention of boards or property managers, to acknowledge no less address their complaints. Perhaps most alarming is the revelation that boards, or board presidents desirous of acting contrary to law, their governing documents or to fundamental democratic principles, are unstoppable without extreme owner effort and often costly litigation.

Certain states are pushing for more checks and balances in homeowners' associations. The North Carolina Planned Community Act, for example, requires a due process hearing to be held before any homeowner may be fined for a covenant violation. It also limits the amount of the fine and sets other restrictions.

California has severely limited the prerogatives of boards by requiring hearings before fines can be levied and then limiting the size of such fines even if the owner-members do not appear. Any rule change made by the board is subject to a majority affirmation by the membership if as few as five percent of the membership demand a vote. This part of the civil code also ensures that any dissenting individual who seeks a director position must be fully represented to the membership and that all meetings be opened and agenda items publicized in advance.

Double taxation

Most homeowners are subject to property taxation, whether or not said property is located in a planned unit development governed by a homeowners' association. Such taxes are used by local municipalities to maintain roads, street lighting, parks, etc. In addition to municipal property taxes, individuals who own private property located within planned unit developments are subject to association assessments that are used by the development to maintain the private roads, street lighting, landscaping, security, and amenitites located within the planned unit development. The proliferation of planned unit developments has resulted in a cost savings to local governments in two ways. One, by requiring developers to build 'public improvements' such as parks, passing the cost of maintenance of the improvements to the common-interest owners, and two, by planned unit developments being responsible for the cost of maintaining infrastructures that would normally be maintained by the municipality.

Financial risk for homeowners

In some U.S. states (such as Texas) a homeowners association can foreclose a member's house without any judicial procedure in order to collect special assessments, fees and fines, or otherwise place an enforceable lien on the property which, upon the property's sale, allows the HOA to collect otherwise unpaid assessments. Other states, like Florida, require a judicial hearing. Foreclosure without a judicial hearing can occur when a power of sale clause exists in a mortgage or deed of trust.

A report self-published by a professor at Washington University disputes the claim that HOAs protect property values, stating, based on a survey of Harris County, Texas (which had an unusual legal regime regarding foreclosures): “Although HOA foreclosures are ostensibly motivated by efforts to improve property values, neither foreclosure activity nor HOAs appear linked with the above average home price growth.”

Homeowners association boards can also collect special assessments from its members in addition to set fees, sometimes without the homeowners' direct vote on the matter, though most states place restrictions on an association's ability to do so. Special assessments often require a homeowner vote if the amount exceeds a prescribed limit established in the Association's by-laws. In California, for example, a special assessment can be imposed by a Board, without a membership vote, only when the TOTAL assessment is 5 percent or less of the association's annual budget. Therefore in the case of a 25 unit association with a $100,000 annual operating budget, the Board could only impose a $5,000 assessment on the entire population ($5,000 divided by 25 units equal $200 per unit). A larger assessment would require a majority vote of the members. In some exceptional cases, particularly in matters of public health or safety, the amount of special assessments may be at the board's discretion. If, for example there is a ruptured sewer line, the Board could vote a substantial assessment immediately, arguing that the matter impacts public health and safety. In practice, however, most Boards prefer that owners have a chance to voice opinions and vote on assessments.

Increasingly, homeowner associations handle large amounts of money. Embezzlement from associations has occurred occasionally, as a result of dishonest board members or community managers, with losses up to millions of dollars. Again, California's Davis-Stirling Act, which was designed to protect owners, requires that Boards carry appropriate liability insurance to indemnify the association from any wrong-doing. The large budgets and expertise required to run such groups are a part of the arguments behind mandating manager certification (through Community Association Institute, state real estate boards, or other agencies).

The AARP has recently voiced concern that homeowners associations pose a risk to the financial welfare of their members. They have proposed that a homeowners "Bill Of Rights" be adopted by all 50 states to protect seniors from rogue Homeowner Associations.

Limits to powers

Prior to the Telecommunications Act of 1996, HOAs could have restrictions prohibiting satellite dishes. Many communities still have these rules in their CC&Rs, but after October of 1996, they are no longer enforceable. With a few exceptions, any homeowner can have a satellite dish 1 meter or smaller in diameter (except Alaska). While HOAs may encourage that dishes be placed as inconspicuously as possible, the dish must be allowed to be placed wherever it needs to be in order to receive a usable signal.

In Florida, state law prevents covenants and deed restrictions passed after Oct. 1, 2001, from prohibiting xeriscaping. In spite of this law, at least one homeowner has faced harassment and threat of fines from a homeowners' group for having insufficient grass after xeriscaping his yard to reduce his water usage. Similar legislation was introduced and passed by the legislature in Colorado but was vetoed by governor Bill Owens. Residents in Colorado have continued to call for regulation to protect xeriscaping, citing homeowners' associations which require the use of grasses that consume large quantities of water and threaten fines for those who do not comply with the covenants.

About San Diego County:

San Diego is a coastal Southern California city located in the southwestern corner of the continental United States. As of 2006, the city has an estimated population of 1,256,951. It is the second largest city in California and the eighth largest city in the United States. It is the county seat of San Diego County.GR6 and is the economic center of the San Diego–Carlsbad–San Marcos metropolitan area, the 17th-largest metro area in the U.S. with a population of 2.9 million as of 2006, and the 21st largest Metropolitan area in the Americas when including Tijuana.

San Diego County lies just north of the Mexican border—sharing a border with Tijuana—and lies south of Orange County. It is home to miles of beaches, a mild Mediterranean climate and 16 military facilities hosting the United States Navy, the United States Coast Guard and the United States Marine Corps.

The University of California, San Diego (UCSD) and the affiliated UCSD Medical Center combined with nearby research institutes in the Torrey Pines area of La Jolla make the area influential in biotechnology research. San Diego's economy is largely composed of agriculture, biotechnology/biosciences, computer sciences, electronics manufacturing, defense-related manufacturing, financial and business services, ship-repair and construction, software development, telecommunications, and tourism.

The city of San Diego it self has deep canyons separating its mesas, creating small pockets of natural parkland scattered throughout the city. The same canyons give parts of the city a highly segmented feel, creating literal gaps between otherwise proximal neighborhoods and contributing to a low-density, car-centered built environment. Downtown San Diego is located on San Diego Bay. Balboa Park lies on a mesa to the northeast. It is surrounded by several dense urban communities and abruptly ends in Hillcrest to the north. The Coronado and Point Loma peninsulas separate San Diego Bay from the ocean. Ocean Beach is on the west side of Point Loma. Mission Beach and Pacific Beach lie between the ocean and Mission Bay, a man-made aquatic park. La Jolla, an affluent community, lies north of Pacific Beach. Mount Soledad in La Jolla offers views from northern San Diego County to Mexico. Mountains rise to the east of the city, and beyond the mountains are desert areas. Cleveland National Forest is a half-hour drive from downtown San Diego. Numerous farms are found in the valleys northeast and southeast of the city. San Diego County has one of the highest count of animal and plant species that are on the endangered species list than other counties in the United States.

Communities and neighborhoods of San Diego: Old Town, San Diego. Old Town, San Diego. Northern: Bay Ho, Bay Park, Carmel Valley, Clairemont Mesa East, Clairemont Mesa West, Del Mar Mesa, La Jolla, La Jolla Village, Mission Beach, Mission Bay Park, North City, North Clairemont, Pacific Beach, Pacific Highlands Ranch, Torrey Hills, Torrey Pines, University City Northeastern: Black Mountain Ranch, Carmel Mountain Ranch, Miramar, Miramar Ranch North, Mira Mesa, Rancho Bernardo, Rancho Encantada, Rancho Peñasquitos, Sabre Springs, San Pasqual Valley, Scripps Ranch, Sorrento Valley, Torrey Highlands Eastern: Allied Gardens, Birdland, Del Cerro, Grantville, Kearny Mesa, Lake Murray, Mission Valley East, San Carlos, Serra Mesa, Tierrasanta Western: Burlingame, Hillcrest, La Playa, Linda Vista, Loma Portal, Midtown, Midway District, Mission Hills, Mission Valley West, Morena, North Park, Ocean Beach, Old Town, Point Loma Heights, Roseville-Fleetridge, Sunset Cliffs, University Heights, Wooded Area Central: Balboa Park, Bankers Hill, Barrio Logan, City Heights, Downtown (Columbia, Core, Cortez Hill, East Village, Gaslamp Quarter, Horton, Little Italy, Marina), Golden Hill, Grant Hill, Logan Heights, Memorial, Middletown, Sherman Heights, South Park, Stockton Mid-City: City Heights (comprising Azalea Park, Bayridge, Hollywood Park, Castle, Cherokee Point, Chollas Creek, Colina Del Sol, Corridor, Fairmount, Fox Canyon, Islenair, Ridgeview/Webster Rolando, Swan Canyon, Teralta East, Teralta West), College East, College West, Darnall, El Cerrito, Gateway, Kensington, Normal Heights, Oak Park, Talmadge Southeastern: Alta Vista, Bay Terrace, Broadway Heights, Chollas View, Emerald Hills, Encanto, Jamacha-Lomita, Lincoln Park, Mountain View, Mt. Hope, Paradise Hills, Shelltown, Skyline, Southcrest, Valencia Park Southern: Egger Highlands, Nestor, Ocean Crest, Otay Mesa, Otay Mesa West, Palm City, San Ysidro, Tijuana River Valley

THE CITIES WITHIN THE COUNTY OF SAN DIEGO ARE:
Carlsbad,Chula Vista Coronado Del Mar El Cajon Encinitas Escondido Imperial Beach La Mesa Lemon Grove National City Oceanside Poway San Diego San Marcos Santee Solana Beach Vista

The three largest sectors of San Diego's economy are defense, manufacturing, and tourism respectively. Several areas of San Diego (in particular La Jolla and surrounding Sorrento Valley areas) are home to offices and research facilities for numerous biotechnology companies. Major biotechnology companies like Neurocrine Biosciences and Nventa Biopharmaceuticals are headquartered in San Diego, while many biotech and pharmaceutical companies, such as BD Biosciences, Biogen Idec, Integrated DNA Technologies, Merck, Pfizer, Élan, Genzyme, Cytovance, Celgene and Vertex, have offices or research facilities in San Diego. There are also several non-profit biotech institutes, such as the Salk Institute for Biological Studies, the Scripps Research Institute and the Burnham Institute. The presence of University of California, San Diego and other research institutions helped fuel biotechnology growth. In June 2004, San Diego was ranked the top biotech cluster in the U.S. by the Milken Institute.

San Diego is home to companies that develop wireless cellular technology. Qualcomm Incorporated was founded and is headquartered in San Diego; Qualcomm is the largest private-sector technology employer (excluding hospitals) in San Diego County. The largest software company in San Diego (acccording to the San Diego Business Journal) is security software company Websense Inc. Websense was founded and is headquartered in San Diego.

The economy of San Diego is influenced by its port, which includes the only major submarine and shipbuilding yards on the West Coast, as well as the largest naval fleet in the world. The cruise ship industry, which is the second largest in California, generates an estimated $2 million annually from the purchase of food, fuel, supplies, and maintenance services. Due to San Diego's military influence, major national defense contractors, such as General Atomics and Science Applications International Corporation are headquartered in San Diego. Tourism is also a major industry owing to the city's climate. Major tourist destinations include Balboa Park, the San Diego Zoo, Seaworld, nearby Wild Animal Park and Legoland, the city's beaches and golf tournaments like the Buick Invitational.

San Diego has several sports venues: Qualcomm Stadium is the home of the NFL San Diego Chargers, NCAA Division I San Diego State Aztecs, as well as local high school football championships. Qualcomm Stadium also hosts international soccer games, Supercross events and formerly hosted Major League Baseball. Three NFL Super Bowl championships and many college football bowl games have been held there. Balboa Stadium is the city's first stadium, constructed in 1914, and former home of the San Diego Chargers. Currently Balboa Stadium hosts soccer, American football and track and field.

PETCO Park in downtown San Diego is the home of Major League Baseball's San Diego Padres. The ballpark is also the current home of the semi-final and final games of the World Baseball Classic series, having hosted the inaugural series championship games in 2006. PETCO Park will be the home to the 2009 World Baseball Classic semi-finals and final as well. Other than baseball, PETCO Park hosts other occasional soccer and rugby events. The San Diego Sports Arena hosts basketball, and has also hosted ice hockey, indoor soccer and boxing. Cox Arena at Aztec Bowl on the campus of San Diego State University hosts the NCAA Division I San Diego State Aztecs men's and women's basketball games. Torero Stadium at the University of San Diego hosts college football and soccer, and the Jenny Craig Pavilion at USD hosts basketball and volleyball.

The San Diego State Aztecs (MWC) and the San Diego Toreros (WCC) are NCAA Division I teams. The UCSD Tritons (CCAA) are members of NCAA Division II while the Point Loma Nazarene Sea Lions (GSAC) are members of the NAIA. San Diego has been the home of two NBA franchises, the first of which was called the San Diego Rockets. The Rockets represented the city of San Diego from 1967 until 1971. After the conclusion of the 1970-1971 season, they moved to Texas where they became the Houston Rockets. Seven years later, San Diego received a relocated NBA franchise (the Buffalo Braves), which was renamed the San Diego Clippers. The Clippers played in the San Diego Sports Arena from 1978 until 1984. Prior to the start of the 1984-1985 season, the team was moved to Los Angeles, and is now called the Los Angeles Clippers. Other sports franchises that represented San Diego include the San Diego Conquistadors of the American Basketball Association, the San Diego Sockers (which played in various indoor and outdoor soccer leagues during their existence), the San Diego Flash and the San Diego Gauchos, both playing in different divisions of the United Soccer League, the San Diego Spirit of the Women's United Soccer Association, the San Diego Mariners of the World Hockey Association, and the San Diego Gulls who were in different hockey leagues during each of their three incarnations. The San Diego Riptide and the San Diego Shockwave were indoor football teams that played at the Sports Arena and Cox Arena, respectively. San Diego has long been a candidate for a Major League Soccer franchise, especially due to the city recording FIFA World Cup television audiences which are double the national average. Curiously, despite positive language being expressed by the league, the city, the media and the public, a franchise continues to elude San Diego. That looks likely to be finally rectified with San Diego considered among the favourites to land one of three franchises to be offered before 2010. The city does currently have an active mens team playing in the fourth level of American soccer, the San Diego Pumitas but no approaches have been made to turn them into an MLS team as yet.

According to education rankings released by the U.S. Census Bureau, 40.4 percent of San Diegans ages 25 and older hold bachelor's degrees. The census ranks the city as the ninth most educated city in the United States based on these figures. Public colleges and universities in the city include University of California, San Diego (UCSD), San Diego State University (SDSU), and the San Diego Community College District, which includes San Diego City College, San Diego Mesa College, and San Diego Miramar College. Private colleges and universities in the city include Alliant International University (AIU), Design Institute of San Diego (DISD), John Paul the Great Catholic University, National University, NewSchool of Architecture and Design, Pacific Oaks College, The Art Institute of California, San Diego, Point Loma Nazarene University (PLNU),Woodbury University School of Architecture's satellite campus, and University of San Diego (USD) . There is one medical school in the city, the UCSD School of Medicine. There are three ABA accredited law schools in the city, which include California Western School of Law, Thomas Jefferson School of Law, and University of San Diego School of Law. There is also one unaccredited law school, Western Sierra Law School. The Joint Mathematics Meeting of the MAA, that is, Mathematical Association of America and AMS, which denotes American Mathematical Society, took place in San Diego, January, 2008.

The San Diego Unified School District, also known as San Diego City Schools, is the school district that serves the majority of the city, it includes 113 elementary schools, 23 middle schools, 4 atypical schools, 10 alternative schools, 27 high schools and 25 charter schools. In the northern part of the county, Poway Unified School District and San Dieguito Union High School District are districts outside city limits, but serve several schools within city limits. In the southern part of the county, Sweetwater Union High School District serves multiple schools within city limits, although it is headquartered outside city limits. San Ysidro School District (K-8) serves areas of San Diego also served by Sweet Water Union High School District. Del Mar Union Elementary School District and Solana Beach Elementary School District serve areas of San Diego also within San Dieguito.

About Orange County:

Orange County is a county in Southern California, United States. Its county seat is Santa Ana. According to the 2000 Census, its population was 2,846,289, making it the second most populous county in the state of California, and the fifth most populous in the United States. The state of California estimates its population as of 2007 to be 3,098,121 people, dropping its rank to third, behind San Diego County. Thirty-four incorporated cities are located in Orange County; the newest is Aliso Viejo.

Unlike many other large centers of population in the United States, Orange County uses its county name as its source of identification whereas other places in the country are identified by the large city that is closest to them. This is because there is no defined center to Orange County like there is in other areas which have one distinct large city. Five Orange County cities have populations exceeding 170,000 while no cities in the county have populations surpassing 360,000. Seven of these cities are among the 200 largest cities in the United States.

Orange County is also famous as a tourist destination, as the county is home to such attractions as Disneyland and Knott's Berry Farm, as well as sandy beaches for swimming and surfing, yacht harbors for sailing and pleasure boating, and extensive area devoted to parks and open space for golf, tennis, hiking, kayaking, cycling, skateboarding, and other outdoor recreation. It is at the center of Southern California's Tech Coast, with Irvine being the primary business hub.

The average price of a home in Orange County is $541,000. Orange County is the home of a vast number of major industries and service organizations. As an integral part of the second largest market in America, this highly diversified region has become a Mecca for talented individuals in virtually every field imaginable. Indeed the colorful pageant of human history continues to unfold here; for perhaps in no other place on earth is there an environment more conducive to innovative thinking, creativity and growth than this exciting, sun bathed valley stretching between the mountains and the sea in Orange County.

Orange County was Created March 11 1889, from part of Los Angeles County, and, according to tradition, so named because of the flourishing orange culture. Orange, however, was and is a commonplace name in the United States, used originally in honor of the Prince of Orange, son-in-law of King George II of England.

Incorporated: March 11, 1889 Legislative Districts: * Congressional: 38th-40th, 42nd & 43 * California Senate: 31st-33rd, 35th & 37 * California Assembly: 58th, 64th, 67th, 69th, 72nd & 74 County Seat: Santa Ana County Information: Robert E. Thomas Hall of Administration 10 Civic Center Plaza, 3rd Floor, Santa Ana 92701 Telephone: (714)834-2345 Fax: (714)834-3098 County Government Website: http://www.oc.ca.gov

About Riverside County: Riverside County, California Map Location in the state of California California's location in the U.S. Statistics Founded 1893 Seat Riverside Largest city Riverside Area  - Total  - Land  - Water 7,303 sq mi (18,915 km²) 7,207 sq mi (18,667 km²) 96 sq mi (248 km²), 1.31% Population  - (2007)  - Density 2,073,571 215/sq mi (83/km²) Website: countyofriverside.us __________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Riverside County is a county located in the southeastern part of the U.S. state of California, stretching from Orange County to the Colorado River, which is the border with Arizona. This county is part of the Riverside-San Bernardino Area, in a region of Southern California known as the Inland Empire.

The population of Riverside County was 1,545,387 in 2000, and the 2007 population has been estimated at 2,073,571. The county seat is the city of Riverside.

Geographically, the county is desert. Most of Joshua Tree National Park is located in the county. Riverside County lies inland of Los Angeles, and south of San Bernardino. Large numbers of Los Angeles workers have moved to the county in recent years to take advantage of relatively affordable housing. Alongside neighboring San Bernardino County, it is one of the fastest growing parts of the Inland Empire. This spawned a wave of toll road construction in the area in the 1990s, starting with the addition of toll commuter lanes to the State Route 91 freeway, the main traffic artery to the western metropolitan area. In addition, smaller, but significant, numbers of people have been moving into southern Riverside County from the San Diego metropolitan area. The cities of Temecula and Murrieta account for 20% of increase in population of Riverside County between 2000 and 2007.

The famous resorts of the Coachella Valley such as Indian Wells, La Quinta, Rancho Mirage, Palm Springs and Palm Desert are located in Riverside County. Indio is the center of an important date growing region.

History

Riverside County was created in 1893 from parts of San Bernardino and San Diego Counties.

The county derives its name from the City of Riverside, California, christened when the upper canal of the Santa Ana River reached it in 1871.

The county's population surpassed one million people in 1980 when the current trend of high population growth as a major real estate destination began in the 1970s.

Geography

According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of 18,915 km² (7,303 sq mi) of which 18,667 km² (7,207 sq mi) is land and 248 km² (96 sq mi), or 1.31%, is water. At roughly 180 miles (290 km) wide in the east-west dimension, the area of the county is massive. County government documents frequently cite the Colorado River town of Blythe as being a "three-hour drive" from the county seat, Riverside. Some view the areas west of San Gorgonio Pass as the Inland Empire portion of the county and the eastern part as either the Mojave Desert or Colorado Desert portion. There are probably at least three geomorphic provinces: the Inland Empire western portion, the Santa Rosa Mountains communities, and the desert region. Other possible subdivisions include tribal lands, the Colorado River communities, and the Salton Sink.

Serving this area are 19 healthcare facilities identified as "General Acute Care Hospitals." Five of these are identified as rural, sixteen provide at least basic emergency care, and three are level 2 trauma centers. The State of California defines Riverside county as Health Service Area 12.

There are 14 major airports in Riverside County. County government projections expect the county's population to roughly double between 2004 and 2040. Most of the growth is expected in communities viewed as being within practical commute distances of work in Los Angeles County and Orange County.

In California, each County Office of Education has influence over funding and operation of schools within its area. The county includes a total of about 380 public schools including Riverside's California School for the Deaf. These schools are operated by about 24 school districts and by Tribal governments in conjunction with the Bureau of Indian Affairs.

Incorporated cities

Riverside County Cities	Year Incorporated	Population, 2007	Median Income, 2006
Banning	1913	28,272	$41,268
Beaumont	1912	28,250	$39,553
Blythe	1916	22,178	$45,302
Calimesa	1990	7,415	$47,406
Canyon Lake	1990	10,939	$70,106
Cathedral City	1981	51,081	$50,654
Corona	1896	144,661	$72,162
Coachella	1946	35,207	$33,402
Desert Hot Springs	1963	22,011	$33,263
Hemet	1910	69,544	$31,749
Indian Wells	1967	4,865	$120,074
Indio	1930	71,654	$45,143
Lake Elsinore	1888	40,985	$54,595
La Quinta	1982	38,340	$71,127
Menifee	2008	60,000	--
Moreno Valley	1984	174,565	$52,426
Murrieta	1991	92,933	$75,102
Norco	1964	27,262	$62,652
Palm Desert	1973	49,539	$61,789
Palm Springs	1938	46,437	$46,399
Perris	1911	47,139	$35,338
Rancho Mirage	1973	16,672	$78,434
Riverside	1883	287,820	$52,023
San Jacinto	1888	31,066	$39,235
Temecula	1989	93,923	$71,754
Wildomar	2008	14,064	$49,081

 

Unincorporated communities and neighborhoods

Aguanga Anza Bermuda Dunes Cabazon Cherry Valley Chiriaco Summit De Luz Desert Beach Desert Center East Blythe Eagle Mountain Eagle Valley East Hemet El Cerrito Glen Avon

Highgrove Home Gardens Homeland Idyllwild Lake Tamarisk Lakeland Village Lakeview Lost Lake Mead Valley Mecca Midland Mira Loma Mountain Center Murrieta Hot Springs North Shore Nuevo

Pedley Pine Cove Quail Valley Ripley Reinhardt Canyon Romoland Rubidoux Sedco Hills Sky Valley Sun City Sunnyslope Thermal Thousand Palms Valle Vista Winchester Woodcrest

Indian reservations

• Agua Caliente Tribal Council
• Cabazon Band of Mission Indians
• Cahuilla Band of Mission Indians
• Morongo Indian Reservation
• Pechanga Band of Mission Indians
• Ramona Band of Cahuilla Indians
• Santa Rosa Indian Reservation
• Soboba Band of Mission Indians
• Torres-Martinez

Adjacent counties

• San Bernardino County, California- north
• La Paz County, Arizona- east
• Imperial County, California- south
• San Diego County, California- south
• Orange County, California- west

		San Bernardino County
	Orange County		La Paz County, Arizona
		Riverside County, California
		San Diego County and Imperial County

National protected areas

• Cleveland National Forest (part)
• Coachella Valley National Wildlife Refuge
• Joshua Tree National Park (part)
• San Bernardino National Forest (part)
• Santa Rosa and San Jacinto Mountains National Monument

About San Bernardino County:

San Bernardino County, California
Map
Location in the state of California
California's location in the U.S.
Statistics
Founded	1853
Seat	San Bernardino
Largest city	San Bernardino
Area  - Total  - Land  - Water	20,105 sq mi (52,072 km²) 20,052 sq mi (51,934 km²) 53 sq mi (137 km²),
Population  - (2007)  - Density	2,007,800 85/sq mi (33/km²)
Website: www.sbcounty.gov
Named for: San Bernardino

San Bernardino County is a county in the U.S. state of California. As of the 2000 census, the population was 1,709,434. As of 2007, the population was estimated by the California Department of Finance to have grown to 2,028,013. San Bernardino County is the largest county in the United States (aside from four of Alaska's districts) by area, and is larger than each of the nine smallest states.

Located in the southeast of the state of California, the thinly populated deserts and mountains of this vast county stretch from the outskirts of the densely populated Riverside-San Bernardino Area to the Nevada border and the Colorado River.

The county seat is San Bernardino. The county is considered to be part of the Inland Empire region and is also the only county in the Golden State bordered by both Nevada and Arizona.

History

Father Francisco Dumetz named San Bernardino on May 20, 1810, feast day of St. Bernardino of Siena.

San Bernardino County was formed from parts of Los Angeles County in 1853. Parts of the county's territory were given to Riverside County in 1893.

The Franciscans gave the name San Bernardino to the snowcapped peak in Southern California, in honor of the saint and it is from him that the county derives its name.

Geography

The Mojave National Preserve covers some of the eastern desert, especially between Interstate 15 and Interstate 40. The desert portion also includes the cities of Needles next to the Colorado River, and Barstow at the junction in Interstate 15 and Interstate 40. Trona is at the northwestern part of the county west of Death Valley. This famous national park, mostly within Inyo County, also has a small portion of land within the county. The largest metropolitan area in the Mojave Desert part of the county is the Victor Valley with the incorporated localities of Apple Valley, Victorville, Adelanto, and Hesperia. Further south, a portion of Joshua Tree National Park overlaps the county near Twentynine Palms. Additional places near and west of Twentynine palms include Yucca Valley, Joshua Tree, and Morongo Valley.

The Arrowhead natural feature is the source of many local names and icons, such as Lake Arrowhead and the County of San Bernardino's seal.

The mountains are home to the San Bernardino National Forest, and include the communities of Crestline, Lake Arrowhead, Running Springs, Big Bear City, Forest Falls, and Big Bear Lake.

The San Bernardino Valley is at the eastern end of the San Gabriel Valley, and is part of the Inland Empire. The San Bernardino Valley includes the cities of Ontario, Chino, Chino Hills, Upland, Fontana, Rialto, Colton, Grand Terrace, Rancho Cucamonga, San Bernardino, Loma Linda, Highland, Redlands, and Yucaipa.

The Inland Empire area of Southern California is made up of the San Bernardino County and Riverside county.

Incorporated communities

San Bernardino County Cities	Year Incorporated	Population, 2007	Median Income, 2006
Adelanto	1970	27,139	$41,444
Apple Valley	1988	70,297	$46,751
Barstow	1947	23,943	$44,737
Big Bear Lake	1981	6,207	$43,983
Chino	1910	81,224	$70,994
Chino Hills	1991	78,668	$100,394
Colton	1887	51,797	$45,911
Fontana	1952	181,640	$60,722
Grand Terrace	1978	12,380	$69,806
Hesperia	1988	85,876	$43,018
Highland	1987	52,186	$53,917
Loma Linda	1970	22,451	$49,211
Montclair	1956	36,622	$52,768
Needles	1913	5,759	$35,338
Ontario	1891	172,701	$56,688
Rancho Cucamonga	1977	174,308	$75,429
Redlands	1888	71,375	$63,463
Rialto	1911	99,064	$45,759
San Bernardino	1854	205,010	$36,676
Twentynine Palms	1987	24,830	$36,471
Upland	1906	75,169	$64,894
Victorville	1962	102,538	$50,531
Yucaipa	1989	51,784	$50,529
Yucca Valley	1991	21,044	$38,092

Unincorporated communities

Amboy Angelus Oaks Baker Baldwin Lake Big Bear City Big River Bloomington Bluewater Cadiz Cedar Glen Crafton Crestline Daggett Devore

Devore Heights Earp Forest Falls Fort Irwin Goffs Helendale Hinkley (See related: Erin Brockovich) Hodge Joshua Tree Kingston Kramer Junction Lake Arrowhead Landers Lenwood

Lucerne Valley Lytle Creek Mentone Morongo Valley Mount Baldy Village Mountain View Acres Muscoy Nebo Center Newberry Springs Nipton Oak Glen Oak Hills Oro Grande Phelan Pinon Hills

Red Mountain Running Springs Rice Rimforest San Antonio Heights Skyforest Sugarloaf Searles Valley Trona Twentynine Palms Base Twin Peaks Valley of Enchantment (VOE) Wonder Valley Wrightwood Yermo

Adjacent counties to San Bernadino County Are: Kern, Inyo, Clark County (Nevada), Mohave County (Arizona), La Paz County (Arizona), Riverside, Orange, and Los Angeles. San Bernardino County, California, is one of the few counties in the United States to border as many as 8 counties.

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